US President Joe Biden warned that the US and its allies would need to "impose costs" on Russia in a 2017 essay - a strategy he reiterated at the White House on Tuesday.

In a 2017 essay, in Foreign Affairs magazine written with Michael Carpenter, Biden wrote that Putin and his allies were "likely to continue their assault on Western democracy".

Countering Russia's actions, he added, would require Washington and its allies to not "only play defence".

"They must also agree to impose meaningful costs on Russia when they discover evidence of its misdeeds," the essay says. "At the same time, to prevent miscalculations, Washington needs to keep talking to Moscow."

Additionally, Biden and Carpenter wrote that Nato should continue to forward-deploy troops to Eastern Europe.

The essay argued that these and other economic steps would serve as a signal to the Kremlin that "the costs of such behavior will eventually outweigh any perceived benefits."Article share tools.